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South Asian ethnolinguistic group

Dravidians
Geographic
distribution		 South Asia and parts of Southeast Asia, mainly South India and Sri Lanka
Linguistic classification 1 of the world's primary language families
Proto-linguistic communication Proto-Dravidian
Subdivisions
  • Northern
  • Primal
  • Southern
ISO 639-2 / five dra
Linguasphere 49 = (phylozone)
Glottolog drav1251
Dravidian subgroups.png

Distribution of subgroups of Dravidian languages:
Dravidian people
Dravidian map.svg

Dravidian speakers in S Asia
Total population
approx. 245 million
Languages
Dravidian languages
Religion
Predominantly Hinduism, Dravidian folk religion and others: Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism

The Dravidian peoples, or Dravidians, are a linguistic group living in Southern asia who predominantly speak any of the Dravidian languages. There are around 245 meg native speakers of Dravidian languages.[1] Dravidian speakers grade the majority of the population of S India and are natively constitute in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan,[2] Bangladesh,[3] the Maldives, Nepal,[4] Bhutan[5] and Sri Lanka.[6] Dravidians are likewise nowadays in Singapore and the United Arab Emirates through recent migration.

Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus culture, suggesting a "tentative engagement of Proto-Dravidian effectually the early part of the tertiary millennium",[vii] after which it branched into various Dravidian languages.[8] South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian Ii (including pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same fourth dimension.[ix]

The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate".[10] They may have been indigenous to the Indian subcontinent,[xi] [12] [13] but origins in, or influence from, Western asia accept as well been proposed.[xiv] [fifteen] [16] [17] [18] Their origins are ofttimes viewed as being connected with the Indus Valley Culture,[10] [18] [19] hence people and language spread east and southwards after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the early second millennium BCE,[20] [21] some propose not long earlier the inflow of Indo-Aryan speakers,[22] with whom they intensively interacted.[23] Genetically, the ancient Indus Valley people were composed of an Iranian hunter gatherers-related and an Aboriginal Ancestral Due south Indian (AASI) component, while present-day Dravidian speakers also carry a modest portion of steppe pastoralist and additional AASI beginnings.[24] [25]

The third century BCE onwards saw the development of large kingdoms in South India. Medieval South Indian guilds and trading organisations like the "Ayyavole of Karnataka and Manigramam" played an important office in the Southeast Asia merchandise,[26] and the cultural Indianisation of the region.

Dravidian visual art is dominated by stylised temple architecture in major centres, and the product of images on stone and bronze sculptures. The sculpture dating from the Chola period has become notable as a symbol of Hinduism.

Etymology

The origin of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa is Tamil.[27] In Prakrit, words such every bit "Damela", "Dameda", "Dhamila" and "Damila", which after evolved from "Tamila", could have been used to announce an ethnic identity.[28] In the Sanskrit tradition the discussion drāviḍa was as well used to denote the geographical region of Southward India.[29] Epigraphic prove of an indigenous group termed equally such is plant in ancient India where a number of inscriptions have come to light datable from the 6th to the fifth century BCE mentioning Damela or Dameda persons. The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga ruler Kharavela refers to a T(ra)mira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers) dated to 150 BCE. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence for 113 years by that time.[28] In Amaravati in present-day Andhra Pradesh at that place is an inscription referring to a Dhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader) datable to the tertiary century CE.[28] Another inscription of about the same time in Nagarjunakonda seems to refer to a Damila. A third inscription in Kanheri Caves refers to a Dhamila-gharini (Tamil house-holder). In the Buddhist Jataka story known every bit Akiti Jataka there is a mention to Damila-rattha (Tamil dynasty).

While the English word Dravidian was first employed by Robert Caldwell in his volume of comparative Dravidian grammar based on the usage of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa in the piece of work Tantravārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa ,[29] the word drāviḍa in Sanskrit has been historically used to denote geographical regions of southern India equally whole. Some theories concern the management of derivation between tamiẓ and drāviḍa ; such linguists equally Zvelebil affirm that the direction is from tamiẓ to drāviḍa .[30]

Ethnic groups

The largest Dravidian ethnic groups are the Telugus from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the Tamils from Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore, the Kannadigas from Karnataka, the Malayalis from Kerala, and the Tulu people from Karnataka.

Name Subgroup Population Notes
Badagas Southward Dravidian 133,500 (2011 census) Badagas are found in Tamil Nadu.
Brahuis North Dravidian ii.v million[ citation needed ] Brahuis are more often than not found in the Balochistan region of Pakistan, with smaller numbers in southwestern Transitional islamic state of afghanistan.
Chenchus S-Central Dravidian North/A Chenchus are found in Andra Pradesh, Telangana, and Odisha.
Irula South Dravidian 203,382 (2011 census) Irula are found in Tamil Nadu.
Giraavaru people South Dravidian 0 < 100 (Extinct) Giraavaru people were found in Maldives.
Gondis Key Dravidian 13 million (approx.)[ citation needed ] Gondi vest to the key Dravidian subgroup. They are spread over the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha. A state named Gondwana was proposed to represent them in India.
Khonds South-Central Dravidian 1,627,486 (2011 census) Khonds are institute in Odisha.
Kannadigas Southward Dravidian 43.7 million[31] Kannadigas are native to Karnataka in Republic of india but a considerable population is also found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Kerala.
Kodavas South Dravidian 160,000 (approx.)[ citation needed ] Kodavas are native to the Kodagu commune.
Kurukh North Dravidian 3.half-dozen million (approx.)[32] Kurukh are spread over parts of us of Chhatishgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha. Oraon people[ description needed ] of Bhutan and Nepal speak Kurukh, also Kurux, Oraon or Uranw, as their native language.
Kurumbar Due south Dravidian Northward/A Kurumbar are establish in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Malayalis S Dravidian 45 million[33] [31] Malayalis are native to Kerala and Lakshadweep, but are also plant in Puducherry and parts of Tamil Nadu. They are also plant in large numbers in Middle East countries, the Americas and Australia.
Paniya S Dravidian N/A Paniya are found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Tamils South Dravidian 78 million[34] Tamils are native to Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but are too found in parts of Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, although they have a large diaspora and are also widespread throughout many countries including South Africa, Singapore, the U.s.a. of America, Canada, Republic of the fiji islands, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Philippines, Mauritius, European countries, Republic of guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Malaysia, as are the other 3 major Dravidian languages.[35]
Telugus Central Dravidian 85.1 meg[36] Telugus are native to Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Yanam (Puducherry), simply are also found in parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and Maharashtra. Further, they accept a big diaspora and are likewise widespread throughout many countries including the United States of America, Canada, Australia and European countries. Telugu is the fastest growing language in the U.s.a..[37]
Todas South Dravidian ii,002 (2011 census) Todas are found in Tamil Nadu.
Tuluvas South Dravidian ii meg (approx.)[ commendation needed ] Tuluvas are plant in coastal Karnataka and Northern Kerala (Kasaragodu district) in India. A state named Tulu Nadu was proposed to stand for them in India.

Linguistic communication

The almost commonly spoken Dravidian languages are Telugu (తెలుగు), Tamil (தமிழ்), Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), Malayalam (മലയാളം), Brahui (براہوئی), Tulu (തᤲളᤲ), Gondi and Coorg. There are 3 subgroups within the Dravidian language family: North Dravidian, Key Dravidian, and South Dravidian, matching for the nigh role the corresponding regions in the Indian subcontinent.

Dravidian grammatical impact on the structure and syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is considered far greater than the Indo-Aryan grammatical impact on Dravidian. Some linguists explain this anomaly by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan and New Indo-Aryan were congenital on a Dravidian substratum.[38] There are also hundreds of Dravidian loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages, and vice versa.

According to David McAlpin and his Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis, the Dravidian languages were brought to Bharat by clearing into India from Elam (not to exist confused with Eelam), located in present-solar day southwestern Iran.[fifteen] [39] In the 1990s, Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza have also argued that Proto-Dravidian was brought to Bharat past farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent,[14] [xl] [41] [note ane] but more recently Heggerty and Renfrew noted that "McAlpin'due south assay of the linguistic communication data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy", calculation that Fuller finds no relation of Dravidian language with other languages, and thus assumes it to be native to India.[42] Renfrew and Bahn conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out."[42]

Equally a proto-language, the Proto-Dravidian language is not itself attested in the historical record. Its mod conception is based solely on reconstruction. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into diverse branches around 3rd millennium BCE.[8] According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilisation, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium."[7] Krishnamurti farther states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian 2 (including pre-Telugu) dissever around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at effectually the aforementioned time.[9]

History

Origins

The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate."[10] They may have been indigenous to the Indian subcontinent,[eleven] [12] [13] simply origins in, or influence from, western Asia have also been proposed.[fourteen] [15] [16] [17] [xviii] According to Narasimhan et al. (2019), early Dravidians formed every bit a mixture of Aboriginal Ancestral S Indians ("AASI" indigenous South Asian hunter-gatherers distantly related to the Andamanese), and Neolithic w Asian farmers from Iran. He notes that in that location are ii scenarios for the origin and spread of Dravidians. Either an origin from the Indus Valley region which is based on genetic information as well as archaeological and linguistic evidence, in which proto-Dravidian was spread by peoples of the IVC, or from the pre-Indus groups of eastern peninsular India, which would be consistent with vocabulary virtually flora and fauna of peninsular India.[25] The present people of the Indian subcontinent, including the Dravidians, are of a mixed genetic origin and accept beginnings from ethnic South Asian Hunter Gatherers, Neolithic west Asian farmers from Islamic republic of iran and Steppe Yamnaya pastoralists.[xx] [24]

Although in modern times speakers of diverse Dravidian languages accept mainly occupied the southern portion of India, Dravidian speakers must accept been widespread throughout the Indian subcontinent earlier the Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent.[23] According to Horen Tudu, "many academic researchers accept attempted to connect the Dravidians with the remnants of the bang-up Indus Valley Culture, located in Northwestern India... but [i]t is mere speculation that the Dravidians are the ensuing post–Indus Valley settlement of refugees into South and Central India."[10] The most noteworthy scholar making such claims is Asko Parpola,[18] who did all-encompassing research on the IVC-scripts.[xviii] [19] The Brahui population of Balochistan in Islamic republic of pakistan has been taken by some every bit the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.[43] Nowadays, Tamils, Malayalis, Telugus and Kannadigas brand up around xx% of India'southward population.[44]

Ancestral components

Several studies take shown that the Indian subcontinent harbours ii major ancestral components,[24] [45] [46] namely the Ancestral N Indians (ANI) which is broadly related to W Eurasians and the Ancestral South Indians (ASI) which is conspicuously distinct from ANI.[24] [note 2] [25] Later on, a component termed "AASI", found to be the predominant element in ASI, was distinguished in subsequent studies. As no "ASI" or "AASI" ancient Deoxyribonucleic acid is available, the indigenous Andamanese (exemplified past the Onge, a possibly distantly related population native to the Andaman Islands) is used equally an imperfect proxy. The two groups (ANI and ASI) extensively mixed in India betwixt 4,200 and ane,900 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE). [46] In fact, Dr. David Reich states that one-time betwixt 1,900 and 4,200 years ago, "profound, pervasive convulsive mixture [between the ANI and ASI] occurred, affecting every Indo-European and Dravidian grouping in India without exception."[48] Considering of this mixing, according to Reich et al., both ANI and ASI ancestry are establish all over the subcontinent (in both northern and southern India) in varying proportions, and that "ANI ancestry ranges from 39–71% in India, and is higher in traditionally upper caste and Indo-European speakers".[24]

Co-ordinate to a big craniometric study (Raghavan and Bulbeck et al. 2013) the native populations of India and Sri Lanka have distinct craniometric and anthropologic ancestry. Both southern and northern groups are most similar to each other, but likewise show deep relations to populations of Europe, the Middle East and N Africa. The study further showed that the native South Asians, north and south, form a unique grouping distinct from "Australo-Melanesians". Nevertheless Raghavan and Bulbeck et al., while noting the differences of South Asian from Andamanese and Australoid crania, while also noting the distinctiveness of between South Asian and Andamanese crania, explain that this is non in conflict with genetic evidence showing a partial common ancestry and genetic affinity between South Asians and the native Andamanese, stating that "the differences may be in part due the greater craniometric specialisation of South Asians compared to Andamanese".[49]

Formation of modern Dravidians

Recent studies have shown that the proto-Dravidians were descendants of neolithic farmers, who are suggested to have migrated from the Zagros Mountains in modern-day Iran to northern Southern asia some 10,000 years ago.[50] According to another report, the neolithic farmers beginnings component forms the principal ancestry of modern South Asians. These neolithic farmers migrated from the Fertile Crescent, most probable from a region almost the Zagros Mountains in modern-solar day Iran, to South Asia some 10,000 years ago.[51] On the other hand, there is also show that Dravidians originated from the ASI-related populations.[52]

Moorjani et al. (2013) depict three scenarios regarding the Peopling of Republic of india:

  1. migrations before the development of agriculture (eight,000–9,000 years before present (BP));
  2. migration of western Asian people together with the spread of agriculture, maybe up to 4,600 years BP;
  3. migrations of western Eurasians from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP.[53]

Co-ordinate to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene period from Iran and the Middle East".[54] Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant testify a genetic blueprint regarding this tolerance which is "feature of the common European mutation".[55] According to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation fabricated a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation due east to India – likely traveling forth the coast of the Western farsi Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."[55]

Asko Parpola, who regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes that Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the w of the Indus River valley,[56] is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.[17] Information technology is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.[57] [58] According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did non descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh,[59] which "suggests moderate levels of gene catamenia".[59] They further noted that "the direct lineal descendants of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to exist found to the south and the e of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau", with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalocolithic Inamgaon, south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.[59]

According to Mondal et al. 2017, based on paternal Deoxyribonucleic acid analysis,[60] Indians are about closely related to southern Europeans and people in the Levant and that this relation existed already before Steppe migration:

These results suggest that the European-related ancestry in Indian populations might exist much older and more than complex than anticipated, and might originate from the first moving ridge of agriculturists or even earlier

—Mondal et al. 2017

Narasimhan et al. (2019) conclude that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE.[25] They were preceded by a mixture of AASI (Ancient Ancestral Due south Indian, i.e. hunter-gatherers sharing a mutual root with the Andamanese); and Iranian hunter-gatherers who arrived in India before the advent of farming.[25] According to Narasimhan et al., this mixed population, which probably was native to the Indus Valley Civilization, contributed significantly to both the ANI and ASI, the germination of which took shape during the 2nd millennium BCE. ANI formed out of a mixture of "Indus Periphery-related groups" and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of "Indus Periphery-related groups" who moved s and mixed further with local hunter-gatherers. The ancestry of the ASI population is suggested to have averaged well-nigh three-quarters from the AASI and one quarter from Iranian-related farmers. The samples analysed by Narasimhan et al. had 45–82% Iranian farmer-related ancestry and xi–l% AASI (or Andamanese-related hunter-gatherer ancestry). The authors found that the respective amounts of those ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and ended that more samples are needed to go the full picture of Indian population history.[25]

Yelmen et al. (2019) shows that the native South Asian genetic component is distinct from the Andamanese and thus that the Andamanese (Onge) are an imperfect and imprecise proxy for "ASI" ancestry in South Asians (at that place is difficulty detecting ASI ancestry in the North Indian Gujarati when the Andamanese Onge are used). Yemen et al. suggest that the South Indian tribal Paniya people would serve every bit a better proxy than the Andamanese (Onge) for the "native Southward Asian" component in modern South Asians.[61]

Shinde et al. (2019) found that their analysed sample had piffling to none of the "Steppe ancestry" component associated with Indo-European migrations into India, which occurred after the decline of the IVC.[62]

Indus Valley Civilisation

The Pashupati seal from the Indus Valley Civilisation

Dravidian identification

The Indus Valley civilisation (2,600–i,900 BCE) located in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent is sometimes identified every bit having been Dravidian.[63] Already in 1924, when announcing the discovery of the IVC, John Marshall stated that (i of) the linguistic communication(s) may have been Dravidic.[64] Cultural and linguistic similarities take been cited past researchers Henry Heras, Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan every bit being potent evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.[65] [66] The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.east. postal service-dating Harappan refuse) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to exist significant for the Dravidian identification.[67] [68]

Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols correspond a logosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer assay, an agglutinative Dravidian language equally the virtually likely candidate for the underlying language.[69] Knorozov's proposition was preceded past the piece of work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.[70]

Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are "virtually likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family".[71] Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script.[72]

Decline, migration and Dravidianization

Paleoclimatologists believe the fall of the Indus Valley Culture and e migration during the late Harappan period was due to climate change in the region, with a 200-year long drought beingness the major cistron.[21] [73] [74] The Indus Valley Civilisation seemed to slowly lose their urban cohesion, and their cities were gradually abased during the late Harappan menstruum, followed past east migrations before the Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent.[21]

The procedure of mail service-Harappan/Dravidian influences on southern Bharat has tentatively been chosen "Dravidianization",[22] and is reflected in the post-Harappan mixture of IVC and Ancient Ancestral South Indian people.[75] Still, according to Krishnamurti, Dravidian languages may have reached due south India before Indo-Aryan migrations.[23]

Dravidian and Indo-Aryan interactions

Dravidian substrate

The Dravidian language influenced the Indo-Aryan languages. Dravidian languages prove extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, just only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages.[23] Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic bear witness for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong every bit we move from the Samhitas down through the afterward Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.[76] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[77] [note 3] or synthesis[79] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans.[80] [78] [81] [82]

According to Mallory there are an estimated 30 to forty Dravidian loanwords in Rig Veda.[83] Some of those for which Dravidian etymologies are sure include ಕುಲಾಯ kulāya "nest", ಕುಲ್ಫ kulpha "ankle", ದಂಡ daṇḍa "stick", ಕುಲ kūla "slope", ಬಿಲ bila "hollow", ಖಲ khala "threshing floor".[84] While J. Bloch and M. Witzel believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian-speaking area later on the oldest parts of the Rig Veda were already composed.[85]

Co-ordinate to Thomason and Kaufman, at that place is strong evidence that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages.[86] According to Erdosy, the near plausible caption for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is that the majority of early Erstwhile Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abased. Erdosy (1995:18) Even though the innovative traits in Indic could exist explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once. Early on Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than whatever internal explanation that has been proposed.[87] According to Zvelebil, "several scholars have demonstrated that pre-Indo-Aryan and pre-Dravidian bilingualism in India provided conditions for the far-reaching influence of Dravidian on the Indo-Aryan tongues in the spheres of phonology, syntax and vocabulary."[88]

Sanskritization

With the ascent of the Kuru Kingdom a process of Sanskritization started which influenced all of Bharat, with the populations of the due north of the Indian subcontinent predominantly speaking the Indo-Aryan languages.[89]

Dravidian empires

The tertiary century BCE onwards saw the development of big Dravidian empires like Chera, Chola, Pandyan, Chutu, Rashtrakuta, Vijayanagara, Pallava, Chalukya, Hoysala, Kingdom of Mysore and smaller kingdoms like Ay, Alupa, Western Ganga, Eastern Ganga, Kadamba, Kalabhra, Andhra Ikshvaku, Vishnukundina, Western Chalukya, Eastern Chalukya, Sena, Kakatiya, Reddy, Mysore, Jaffna, Travancore, Venad, Cochin, Cannanore, Calicut and the Nayakas.

Medieval trade and influence

Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organisations like the Ayyavole and Manigramam played an important role in the southeast Asia trade.[26] Traders and religious leaders travelled to southeast Asia and played an of import role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Locally developed scripts such every bit Grantha and Pallava script induced the development of many native scripts such as Khmer, Javanese Kawi, Baybayin, and Thai.

Around this time, Dravidians encountered Muslim traders, and the first Tamil Muslims and Sri Lankan Moors appeared.

European contact (1500 onward)

Portuguese explorers like Vasco de Gama were motivated to expand mainly for the spice markets of Calicut (today called Kozhikode) in modern-day Kerala. This led to the institution of a series of Portuguese colonies along the western coasts of Karnataka and Kerala, including Mangalore. During this time Portuguese Jesuit priests as well arrived and converted a minor number of people in modernistic Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to Catholicism, virtually notably the Paravars.

Dravidian culture

Religious belief

Ancient Dravidian organized religion constituted of an animistic and not-Vedic form of religion which may accept influenced the Āgamas, Vedic and non-Vedic texts[ninety] which post-appointment the Vedic texts.[91] The Agamas are Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[92] The worship of village deities, also as sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is recognised as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.[93] Hinduism tin can exist regarded as a religious and cultural fusion[77] [notation 3] or synthesis[79] between aboriginal Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, and other local elements.[80] [78] [81] [82]

Sage Agastya, father of Tamil literature

Aboriginal Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, and the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai shed lite on early on ancient Dravidian religion. Murugan (also known as Seyyon) was glorified as the cerise god seated on the bluish peacock, who is always young and resplendent, as the favoured god of the Tamils.[94] Sivan was too seen as the supreme God.[94] Early iconography of Murugan[95] and Sivan[96] [97] [98] and their association with native flora and brute goes back to the Indus Valley Civilisation.[99] [100] The Sangam landscape was classified into 5 categories, thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such as Seyyon in Kurinji (hills), Thirumaal in Mullai (forests), and Kotravai in Marutham (plains), and Wanji-ko in the Neithal (coasts and seas). Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali, now identified with Krishna and Balarama, who are all major deities in Hinduism today. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion[77] [note 3] or synthesis[79] betwixt ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence and shape Indian civilisation.[80] [78] [81] [82]

Throughout Tamilakam, a rex was considered to be divine past nature and possessed religious significance.[101] The rex was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil (Tamil: கோயில்). Ritual worship was also given to kings.[102] [103] Modern words for god similar "kō" (Tamil: கோ "rex"), "iṟai" ( இறை "emperor") and "āṇḍavar" ( ஆண்டவன் "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary wedlock of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji-ko, a god who subsequently merged into Indra.[104] Tolkappiyar refers to the Iii Crowned Kings as the "3 Glorified by Heaven", (Tamil: வாண்புகழ் மூவர் , Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar ? ).[105] In Dravidian-speaking South Bharat, the concept of divine kingship led to the supposition of major roles by country and temple.[106]

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This female parent goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and ane, and were typically associated with Shaktism.[107] The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which likewise appears predominantly every bit a goddess.[108] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate clarification of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.[109]

Amidst the early on Dravidians, the practice of erecting memorial stones, Natukal and Viragal, had appeared, and it connected for quite a long time afterwards the Sangam age, downwardly to nearly the 16th century.[110] It was customary for people who sought victory in state of war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.[111]

Architecture and visual fine art

Typical layout of Dravidian temple architecture, 9th century A.D

Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts estimated to exist in apportionment by the fifth to 7th century Advertisement, are guidebooks on the Dravidian style of Vastu Shastra pattern, construction, sculpture and joinery technique.[112] [113] Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the ninth century describing the fine art of edifice in India in south and central Republic of india.[112] [114] In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited aboriginal Sanskrit manual from the sixth century describing the pattern and construction of Nagara-manner Hindu temples.[115] [116] [117] Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are not-Vedic in origin[90] and take been dated either equally mail-Vedic texts[91] or equally pre-Vedic compositions.[118] The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple structure and creation of murti, worship ways of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[92]

Chola-style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, bundled in differing manners, but differing in themselves just according to the age in which they were executed:[119]

  1. The porches or Mantapas, which e'er cover and precede the door leading to the jail cell.
  2. Gate-pyramids, Gopuras, which are the chief features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more than notable temples. Gopuras are very common in Dravidian temples.
  3. Pillared halls (Chaultris or Chawadis) are used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.

Also these, a south Indian temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.[119]

Theatre, dance and music

Literary show of traditional form of theatre, trip the light fantastic toe and music dates back to the tertiary century BCE.[120] Ancient literary works, such as the Cilappatikaram, describe a organisation of music.[120] The theatrical culture flourished during the early Sangam age. Theatre-trip the light fantastic traditions have a long and varied history whose origins tin can be traced back most two millennia to dance-theatre forms like Kotukotti, Kaapaalam and Pandarangam, which are mentioned in an ancient album of poems entitled the Kaliththokai.[121] Trip the light fantastic forms such as Bharatanatyam are based on older temple dance forms known every bit Catir Kacceri, as practised by courtesans and a class of women known as Devadasis.[122]

Carnatic music originated in the Dravidian region. With the growing influence of Farsi and Sufi music on Indian music, a clear distinction in style appeared from the twelfth century onwards. Many literary works were composed in Carnatic style and it soon spread wide in the Dravidian regions. The well-nigh notable Carnatic musician is Purandara Dasa who lived in the court of Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire. He formulated the bones structure of Carnatic music and is regarded equally the Pitamaha (lit, "father" or the "grandfather") of Carnatic Music. Kanakadasa is some other notable Carnatic musician who was Purandaradasa'southward contemporary.

Each of the major Dravidian languages has its ain film industry similar Kollywood (Tamil), Tollywood (Telugu), Sandalwood (Kannada), Mollywood (Malayalam). Kollywood and Tollywood produce most films in India.[123]

Clothing

Dravidian speakers in southern Republic of india wear varied traditional costumes depending on their region, largely influenced by local customs and traditions. The almost traditional dress for Dravidian men is the lungi, or the more formal dhoti, called veshti in Tamil, panche in Kannada and Telugu, and mundu in Malayalam. The lungi consists of a colourful checked cotton fabric. Many times these lungis are tube-shaped and tied around the waist, and can be hands tied above the knees for more strenuous activities. The lungi is usually everyday dress, used for doing labour while dhoti is used for more formal occasions. Many villagers have only a lungi equally their article of wear. The dhoti is generally white in colour, and occasionally has a border of red, green or gilt. Dhotis are usually made out of cotton for more everyday use, but the more than expensive silk dhotis are used for special functions like festivals and weddings.

Traditional dress of Dravidian women is typical of nigh Indian women, that of the sari. This sari consists of a cloth wrapped around the waist and draped over the shoulder. Originally saris were worn bare, but during the Victorian era, women began wearing blouse (called a ravike) forth with sari. In fact, until the belatedly 19th century most Kerala women did non clothing any upper garments, or were forced to by constabulary, and in many villages, peculiarly in tribal communities, the sari is worn without the blouse. Unlike Indo-Aryan speakers, nearly Dravidian women do non cover their caput with the pallu except in areas of North Karnataka. Due to the complexity of draping the sari, younger girls start with a skirt chosen a pavada. When they get older, around the age when puberty begins, they transition to a langa voni or one-half-sari, which is composed of a skirt tied at the waist along with a cloth draped over a blouse. Subsequently adulthood girls begin using the sari. There are many different styles of sari draping varying across regions and communities. Examples are the Madisar, specific to Tamil Brahmin Customs, and the Mundum Neriyathum.

Martial arts and sports

In Mahabharata, Bhishma claimed that southerners are skilled with sword-fighting in general and Sahadeva was chosen for the conquest of the southern kingdoms due to his swordsmanship.[124] In South Bharat various types of martial arts are practised similar Kalaripayattu and Silambam.

In ancient times there were ankams, public duels to the death, to solve disputes betwixt opposing rulers.[125] Among some communities, young girls received preliminary preparation up until the onset of puberty.[125] In vadakkan pattukal ballads, at least a few women warriors connected to exercise and achieved a high caste of expertise.[125]

Sports like Kambala, Jallikattu, Kabaddi, Vallam Kali, Lambs and Tigers and Maramadi remain strong among Dravidian ethnic groups.

See also

General
  • Dravidian languages
  • Dravidian University (dedicated to inquiry and learning of Dravidian languages)
Culture
  • Dance forms of Andhra Pradesh
  • Culture of Telangana
  • Arts of Kerala
  • Trip the light fantastic toe forms of Tamil Nadu
  • Folk arts of Karnataka
Other
  • Proto-Indo-Europeans
  • Early on Indians
  • Indo-Aryan peoples
  • Not-resident Indian and Overseas Citizen of India

Notes

  1. ^ Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian linguistic communication, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."[41]

    Derenko refers to:
    * Renfrew (1987), Archeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
    * Renfrew (1996), Language families and the spread of farming. In: Harris DR, editor, The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 70–92
    * Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994), The History and Geography of Human being Genes.
  2. ^ Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).[47]
  3. ^ a b c Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very unlike peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."[77] Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan behavior with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."[78]

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External links

Origins
  • Akhilesh Pillalamarri, Where Did Indians Come from, part1, part 2, office 3
  • Roll.in, "Aryan migration: Everything you need to know almost the new study on Indian genetics". , on Narasimhan (2018)
Language
  • Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Dravidian languages, Encyclopædia Britannica
  • Dravidian language family is approximately iv,500 years old, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_peoples

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